කළු කුහර

පරිඝනයකින් ගොඩනැගූ විශාල Magellanic වලාකුළ ඉදිරයෙන් ඇති කළු කුහරයක දර්ශනයක්. කළු කුහරයේ Schwarzschild අරය සහ නිරීක්ෂකයාට ඇති දුර අතර අනුපාතය 1:9 කි. මෙහිදී අයින්ස්ටයින් වලල්ළ ලෙසින් හැඳින්වෙන ගුරුත්ව කාච හැසිරීම කැපී පෙනේ. එහිදී වලාකුළේ විශාල, දීප්තිමත් මෙන්ම විරූපී ප්‍රතිබිම්භ දෙකක් නිර්මාණය වේ.

කළු කුහරයක් යනු කිසිදු පදාර්ථයකට මෙන්ම ආලෝකයට පවා පිටවිය නොහැකි අභ්‍යවකාශයේ ප්‍රදේශයකි. එය ඉතාමත් ඝන වූ ස්කන්ධයක් විසින් අවකාශ-කාල විරූපී කිරීමේ ප්‍රතිඵලයකි. කළු කුහරය වටා පවතින්නේ හඳුනා ගත නොහැකි, event ක්ෂිතිජය යනුවෙන් හැඳින්වෙන, නැවත නොපැමිනී‍මේ සීමාව ලකුණු කරන මතුපිටයි. එය කළු ලෙස හඳුන්වන්නේ එය මතට පතිත වන සියළු ආලෝකය නැවත පරාවර්ථනය නොකර සම්පූර්ණයෙන් උරා ගන්නා නිසාය (තාප ගති විද්‍යාවේ එන කෘෂ්ණ වස්තු (Black Body) වැනිය). ක්වොන්ටම් විද්‍යාවට අනුව කළු කුහර, සීමිත උෂ්ණත්වයකින් යුතු වස්තුවක් මෙන්, හෝකින් කිරණ විහිදුවයි. මෙම උෂ්ණත්වය කළු කුහරයේ ප්‍රමාණය අනුව අඩු වන බැවින් විශාල ස්කන්ධයකින් යුතු කළු කුහර නිරීක්ෂණය කිරීම අපහසුය.

එය අදෘශ්‍ය වුවත්, වෙනත් පදාර්ථ සමග සිදුවන අන්තර්ක්‍රියා මගින් කළු කුහර හඳුනාගත හැකිය. අවකාශයේ ප්‍රදේශයක් වටා පරිභ්‍රමණය වන තරු පොකුරක චලන රටා අධ්‍යනය කිරීමෙන් කළු කුහරයක පිහිටීම හඳුනාගත හැකිය. එමෙන්ම, තරු යුග්මයකින් විශාල කළු කුහරයකට පදාර්ථය ඇදගන්නා විට, එම වායු සර්පිලාකිරව හැඩගැසී, අධි උෂ්ණත්වයකට භාජනය වී නිකුත් කරන විකිරණය, ප්‍රථිවි-ගත දුරෙක්ෂක මගින් හඳුනාගත හැක.

තාරකා විද්‍යාඥයින් විසින් කළු කුහර තිබිය හැකි ස්ථාන විශාල ප්‍රමාණයක් හඳුනාගෙන ඇති අතර, චක්‍රාවාට ම්‍ධ්‍යයේ supermassive කළු කුහර පැවතිය හැකි බවට සාධක සොයාගෙන ඇත. ක්‍ෂිර පථය මධ්‍යයේ Sagittarius A* ප්‍රදේශ‍යේ, සූර්ය-සකන්ධ මිලියන 2කට අධික supermassive කළු කුහරයක් පවතින බවට, 1998 වර්ශයේදී, විද්‍යාඥයින් හට ශක්තිමක් සාධක හමුවුනි. නමුත් මෑතකදි කරන ලද පරීක්ෂන වලට අනුව මෙය සූර්ය-සකන්ධ මිලියන 4කට අධික විය යුතු බව සොයාගෙන ඇත.

ඉතිහාසය

පසුතලයේ ඇති මන්දාකිණියක දර්ශනය කළු කුහරයක ගුරුත්ව කාච (gravitational lensing) වීමකට භාජනය වූ විට දැකිය යුතු ආකාරය (පරිගණක මගින් නිර්මාණය කිරීමක්) (click here for larger animation)

ඉතාමත් ඝන වස්තු මගින් ආලෝකයට පවා පිටවීමට නොහැකි අදහස මුලින්ම ඉදිරිපත් වූවේ භු විද්‍යාඥ ජෝන් මිසෂල් විසින් හෙන්රි කැවෙන්ඩිශ් හට 1783දී ලියූ ලිපියකිනි:

If the semi-diameter of a sphere of the same density as the Sun were to exceed that of the Sun in the proportion of 500 to 1, a body falling from an infinite height towards it would have acquired at its surface greater velocity than that of light, and consequently supposing light to be attracted by the same force in proportion to its vis inertiae, with other bodies, all light emitted from such a body would be made to return towards it by its own proper gravity.

—ජෝන් මිෂෙල්

1796දී ගණිතඤ පියර්-සයිමන් ලා‍ප්ලේස්, එම අදහසම, ඔහුගේ Exposition du système du Monde ග්‍රන්ථයේ පළමුවන සහ දෙවන සංස්කරණ වලින් ඉදිරිපත් කර තිබුනි (පසු සංස්කරණ වලින් එය ඉවත් කෙරිණි). එවන් අඳුරු තාරකා පිළිබඳ අදහස 19 ශතකයේ විශාල වශයෙන් ප්‍රතික්ෂේප විණි. එම කාලයේ ගුරුත්වාකර්ශෂණය මගින් ආලෝකයට බලපෑම් කල නොහැකි බවට විශ්වාස කෙරිණි.

සාමාන්‍ය සාපේක්ෂතාවාදය

1915 දී ඇල්බට් අයින්ස්ටයින් විසින් සාමාන්‍ය සාපේක්ෂතාවාදය ඉදිරිපත් ‍කලේ ගුරුත්වාකර්ෂණය ආලෝකයේ ගමන් මාර්ගයට බලපෑම් කරන බව පෙන්වා දීමෙන් පසුවය. ඉන් මාස කිහිපයකට පසුව Karl Schwarzschild විසින් ලක්ෂ්‍ය-ස්කන්ධයක සහ ගොලීය ස්කන්ධයක ගුරුත්වාකර්ෂණයට විසඳුමක් ලබා දුන්නේය. තවත් මාස කිහිපයකට පසු Schwarzschild සහ Hendrik Lorentz ගේ ශිෂ්‍යයෙකු වූ Johannes Droste, තනි තනිවම ඒවාගේ ලක්ෂණ පිළිබඳව වැඩිදුර ලිව්වෝය. This solution had a peculiar behaviour at what is now called the Schwarzschild radius, where it became singular, meaning that some of the terms in the Einstein equations became infinite. The nature of this surface was not quite understood at the time. In 1924, Arthur Eddington showed that the singularity disappeared after a change of coordinates (see Eddington coordinates), although it took until 1933 for Georges Lemaître to realize that this meant the singularity at the Schwarzschild radius was an unphysical coordinate singularity.

In 1931, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar calculated, using general relativity, that a non-rotating body of electron-degenerate matter above 1.44 solar masses (the Chandrasekhar limit) would collapse. His arguments were opposed by many of his contemporaries like Eddington and Lev Landau, who argued that some yet unknown mechanism would stop the collapse. They were partly correct: a white dwarf slightly more massive than the Chandrasekhar limit will collapse into a neutron star, which is itself stable because of the Pauli exclusion principle. But in 1939, Robert Oppenheimer and others predicted that neutron stars above approximately three solar masses (the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit) would collapse into black holes for the reasons presented by Chandrasekhar, and concluded that no law of physics was likely to intervene and stop at least some stars from collapsing to black holes.

Oppenheimer and his co-authors interpreted the singularity at the boundary of the Schwarzschild radius as indicating that this was the boundary of a bubble in which time stopped. This is a valid point of view for external observers, but not for infalling observers. Because of this property, the collapsed stars were called "frozen stars," because an outside observer would see the surface of the star frozen in time at the instant where its collapse takes it inside the Schwarzschild radius. This is a known property of modern black holes, but it must be emphasized that the light from the surface of the frozen star becomes redshifted very fast, turning the black hole black very quickly. Many physicists could not accept the idea of time standing still at the Schwarzschild radius, and there was little interest in the subject for over 20 years.

ස්වර්ණමය යුගය

සැකිල්ල:මේවත් බලන්න 1958 දී , ඩේවිඩ් ෆින්ස්කෙලේෂ්ටින් අවබෝද කරගත්ත Schwarzschild r = 2m [in geometrized units, i.e. 2Gm/c²] as an event horizon, "a perfect unidirectional membrane: causal influences can cross it in only one direction". This did not strictly contradict Oppenheimer's results, but extended them to include the point of view of infalling observers. Finkelstein's solution extended the Schwarzschild solution for the future of observers falling into the black hole. A complete extension had already been found by Martin Kruskal, who was urged to publish it.

These results came at the beginning of the golden age of general relativity, which is marked by general relativity and black holes becoming mainstream subjects of research. This process was helped by the discovery of pulsars in 1967, which were within a few years shown to be rapidly rotating neutron stars. Until that time, neutron stars, like black holes, were regarded as just theoretical curiosities; but the discovery of pulsars showed their physical relevance and spurred a further interest in all types of compact objects that might be formed by gravitational collapse.

In this period more general black hole solutions where found. In 1963, Roy Kerr found the exact solution for a rotating black hole. Two years later Ezra T. Newman found the axisymmetric solution for a black hole which is both rotating and electrically charged. Through the work of Werner Israel, Brandon Carter, and D. C. Robinson the no-hair theorem emerged, stating that a stationary black hole solution is completely described by the three parameters of the Kerr–Newman metric; mass, angular momentum, and electric charge.

For a long time, it was suspected that the strange features of the black hole solutions were pathological artefacts from the symmetry conditions imposed, and that the singularities would not appear in generic situations. This view was held in particular by Belinsky, Khalatnikov, and Lifshitz, who tried to prove that no singularities appear in generic solutions. However, in the late sixties Roger Penrose and Stephen Hawking used global techniques to prove that singularities are generic.

Work by James Bardeen, Jacob Bekenstein, Carter, and Hawking in the early 1970s led to the formulation of the laws of black hole mechanics. These laws describe the behaviour of a black hole in close analogy to the laws of thermodynamics by relating mass to energy, area to entropy, and surface gravity to temperature. The analogy was completed when Hawking, in 1974, showed that quantum field theory predicts that black holes should radiate like a black body with a temperature proportional to the surface gravity of the black hole.

The term "black hole" was first publicly used by John Wheeler during a lecture in 1967. Although he is usually credited with coining the phrase, he always insisted that it was suggested to him by somebody else. The first recorded use of the term is in a 1964 letter by Anne Ewing to the American Association for the Advancement of Science. After Wheeler's use of the term, it was quickly adopted in general use.

ලක්ෂණ සහ ව්‍යුහය

The no-hair theorem states that, once it achieves a stable condition after formation, a black hole has only three independent physical properties: mass, charge, and angular momentum. Any two black holes that share the same values for these properties, or parameters, are indistinguishable according to classical (i.e. non-quantum) mechanics.

These properties are special because they are visible from outside the black hole. For example, a charged black hole repels other like charges just like any other charged object. Similarly, the total mass inside a sphere containing a black hole can be found by using the gravitational analog of Gauss's law, the ADM mass, far away from the black hole. Likewise, the angular momentum can be measured from far away using frame dragging by the gravitomagnetic field.

When an object falls into a black hole, any information about the shape of the object or distribution of charge on it is evenly distributed along the horizon of the black hole, and is lost to outside observers. The behavior of the horizon in this situation is closely analogous to that of a conductive stretchy membrane with friction and electrical resistance, a dissipative system (see membrane paradigm). This is different from other field theories like electromagnetism, which does not have any friction or resistivity at the microscopic level, because they are time-reversible. Because the black hole eventually achieves a stable state with only three parameters, there is no way to avoid losing information about the initial conditions: the gravitational and electric fields of the black hole give very little information about what went in. The information that is lost includes every quantity that cannot be measured far away from the black hole horizon, including the total baryon number, lepton number, and all the other nearly conserved pseudo-charges of particle physics. This behavior is so puzzling that it has been called the black hole information loss paradox.

භෞතික ලක්ෂණ

The simplest black hole has mass but neither electric charge nor angular momentum. These black holes are often referred to as Schwarzschild black holes after the physicist Karl Schwarzschild who discovered this solution in 1915. According to Birkhoff's theorem, it is the only vacuum solution that is spherically symmetric. This means that there is no observable difference between the gravitational field of such a black hole and that of any other spherical object of the same mass. The popular notion of a black hole "sucking in everything" in its surroundings is therefore only correct near the black hole horizon; far away, the external gravitational field is identical to that of any other body of the same mass.

Solutions describing more general black holes also exist. Charged black holes are described by the Reissner-Nordström metric, while the Kerr metric describes a rotating black hole. The most general stationary black hole solution known is the Kerr-Newman metric, which describes a black hole with both charge and angular momentum.

While the mass of a black hole can take any positive value, the charge and angular momentum are constrained by the mass. In Planck units, the total electric charge Q and the total angular momentum J are expected to satisfy

$Q^{2}+\left({\tfrac {J}{M}}\right)^{2}\leq M^{2}\,$$Q^{2}+\left({\tfrac {J}{M}}\right)^{2}\leq M^{2}\,$

for a black hole of mass M. Black holes saturating this inequality are called extremal. Solutions of Einstein's equations violating the inequality exist, but do not have a horizon. These solutions have naked singularities and are deemed unphysical. The cosmic censorship hypothesis rules out the formation of such singularities through the gravitational collapse of realistic matter. This is supported by numerical simulations.

Due to the relatively large strength of the electromagnetic force, black holes forming from the collapse of stars are expected to retain the nearly neutral charge of the star. Rotation, however, is expected to be a common feature of compact objects, and the black-hole candidate binary X-ray source GRS 1915+105 appears to have an angular momentum near the maximum allowed value.

Class	Mass	Size
Supermassive black hole	~105–109 MSun	~0.001–10 AU
Intermediate-mass black hole	~103 MSun	~103 km = REarth
Stellar black hole	~10 MSun	~30 km
Micro black hole	up to ~MMoon	up to ~0.1 mm

Black holes are commonly classified according to their mass, independent of angular momentum J or electric charge Q. The size of a black hole, as determined by the radius of the event horizon, or Schwarzschild radius, is roughly proportional to the mass M through

$r_{\mathrm {sh} }={\frac {2GM}{c^{2}}}\approx 2.95\,{\frac {M}{M_{\mathrm {Sun} }}}~\mathrm {km,}$$r_{\mathrm {sh} }={\frac {2GM}{c^{2}}}\approx 2.95\,{\frac {M}{M_{\mathrm {Sun} }}}~\mathrm {km,}$

where r_sh is the Schwarzschild radius and M_Sun is the mass of the Sun. This relation is exact only for black holes with zero charge and angular momentum, for more general black holes it can differ up to a factor of 2. The table on the right lists the various classes of black hole that are distinguished.

Event ක්ෂ්තිජය

කළු කුහරයෙන් ඈතදී වස්තුවකට ඕනෑම දිශාවකට ගමන් කල හැකිය. එය සීමා වන්නේ ආලෝකයේ වේගයට පමණි.

කළු කුහරයට සමීපයෙන් අවකාශ-කාල විරූපී වීමට පටන් ගනී. කළු කුහරයේ පිටතට ගය ගමන් මාර්ග වලට වඩා එය දෙසට ඇති ගමන් මාර්ග වැඩිය.

Event ක්ෂිතිජයට ඇතුලදී සියලු ගමන් මාර්ග පිහිටන්නේ කළු කුහරයේ කේන්ද්‍රය දෙසටය. එතැන් සිට වස්තුවකට පිටතට පැමිණීමට නොහැකිය.

The defining feature of a black hole is the appearance of an event horizon—a boundary in spacetime through which matter and light can only pass inward towards the mass of the black hole. Nothing, not even light, can escape from inside the event horizon. The event horizon is referred to as such because if an event occurs within the boundary, information from that event cannot reach an outside observer, making it impossible to determine if such an event occurred.

As predicted by general relativity, the presence of a large mass deforms spacetime in such a way that the paths taken by particles bend towards the mass. At the event horizon of a black hole, this deformation becomes so strong that there are no paths that lead away from the black hole.

To a distant observer, clocks near a black hole appear to tick more slowly than those further away from the black hole. Due to this effect, known as gravitational time dilation, an object falling into a black hole appears to slow down as it approaches the event horizon, taking an infinite time to reach it. At the same time, all processes on this object slow down causing emitted light to appear redder and dimmer, an effect known as gravitational redshift. Eventually, at a point just before it reaches the event horizon, the falling object becomes so dim that it can no longer be seen.

On the other hand, an observer falling into a black hole does not notice any of these effects as he crosses the event horizon. According to his own clock, he crosses the event horizon after a finite time, although he is unable to determine exactly when he crosses it, as it is impossible to determine the location of the event horizon from local observations.

For a non rotating (static) black hole, the Schwarzschild radius delimits a spherical event horizon. The Schwarzschild radius of an object is proportional to the mass. Rotating black holes have distorted, nonspherical event horizons. Since the event horizon is not a material surface but rather merely a mathematically defined demarcation boundary, nothing prevents matter or radiation from entering a black hole, only from exiting one. The description of black holes given by general relativity is known to be an approximation, and some scientists expect that quantum gravity effects will become significant near the vicinity of the event horizon. This would allow observations of matter near a black hole's event horizon to be used to indirectly study general relativity and proposed extensions to it.

ලක්ෂ්‍ය-භාවය

මූලික ලිපිය: Gravitational singularity

At the center of a black hole as described by general relativity lies a gravitational singularity, a region where the spacetime curvature becomes infinite. For a non-rotating black hole this region takes the shape of a single point and for a rotating black hole it is smeared out to form a ring singularity lying in the plane of rotation. In both cases the singular region has zero volume. It can also be shown that the singular region contains all the mass of the black hole solution. The singular region can thus be thought of as having infinite density.

An observer falling into a Schwarzschild black hole (i.e. non-rotating and no charges) cannot avoid the singularity. Any attempt to do so will only shorten the time taken to get there. When they reach the singularity, they are crushed to infinite density and their mass is added to the total of the black hole. Before that happens, they will have been torn apart by the growing tidal forces in a process sometimes referred to as spaghettification or the noodle effect.

In the case of a charged (Reissner–Nordström) or rotating (Kerr) black hole it is possible to avoid the singularity. Extending these solutions as far as possible reveals the hypothetical possibility of exiting the black hole into a different spacetime with the black hole acting as a worm hole. The possibility of travelling to another universe is however only theoretical, since any perturbation will destroy this possibility. It also appears to be possible to follow closed timelike curves (going back to one's own past) around the Kerr singularity, which lead to problems with causality like the grandfather paradox. It is expected that none of these peculiar effects would survive in a proper quantum mechanical treatment of rotating and charged black holes.

The appearance of singularities in general relativity is commonly perceived as signaling the breakdown of the theory. This breakdown, however, is expected; it occurs in a situation where quantum mechanical effects should describe these actions due to the extremely high density and therefore particle interactions. To date it has not been possible to combine quantum and gravitational effects into a single theory. It is generally expected that a theory of quantum gravity will feature black holes without singularities.

‍‍‍ෆෝටෝන ගෝලය

මූලික ලිපිය: Photon sphere

The photon sphere is a spherical boundary of zero thickness such that photons moving along tangents to the sphere will be trapped in a circular orbit. For non-rotating black holes, the photon sphere has a radius 1.5 times the Schwarzschild radius. The orbits are dynamically unstable, hence any small perturbation (such as a particle of infalling matter) will grow over time, either setting it on an outward trajectory escaping the black hole or on an inward spiral eventually crossing the event horizon.

While light can still escape from inside the photon sphere, any light that crosses the photon sphere on an inbound trajectory will be captured by the black hole. Hence any light reaching an outside observer from inside the photon sphere must have been emitted by objects inside the photon sphere but still outside of the event horizon.

Other compact objects, such as neutron stars, can also have photon spheres. This follows from the fact that the gravitational field of an object does not depend on its actual size, hence any object that is smaller than 1.5 times the Schwarzschild radius corresponding to its mass will indeed have a photon sphere.

Ergo ගෝලය

මූලික ලිපිය: Ergosphere

The ergosphere is an oblate spheroid region outside of the event horizon, where objects cannot remain stationary.

Rotating black holes are surrounded by a region of spacetime in which it is impossible to stand still, called the ergosphere. This is the result of a process known as frame-dragging; general relativity predicts that any rotating mass will tend to slightly "drag" along the spacetime immediately surrounding it. Any object near the rotating mass will tend to start moving in the direction of rotation. For a rotating black hole this effect becomes so strong near the event horizon that an object would have to move faster than the speed of light in the opposite direction to just stand still.

The ergosphere of a black hole is bounded by the (outer) event horizon on the inside and an oblate spheroid, which coincides with the event horizon at the poles and is noticeably wider around the equator. The outer boundary is sometimes called the ergosurface.

Objects and radiation can escape normally from the ergosphere. Through the Penrose process, objects can emerge from the ergosphere with more energy than they entered. This energy is taken from the rotational energy of the black hole causing it to slow down.

බිහිවීම සහ සකස් වීම

Considering the exotic nature of black holes, it may be natural to question if such bizarre objects could exist in nature or to suggest that they are merely pathological solutions to Einstein's equations. Einstein himself wrongly thought that black holes would not form, because he held that the angular momentum of collapsing particles would stabilize their motion at some radius. This led the general relativity community to dismiss all results to the contrary for many years. However, a minority of relativists continued to contend that black holes were physical objects, and by the end of the 1960s, they had persuaded the majority of researchers in the field that there is no obstacle to forming an event horizon.

Once an event horizon forms, Roger Penrose proved that a singularity will form somewhere inside it. Shortly afterwards, Stephen Hawking showed that many cosmological solutions describing the Big Bang have singularities without scalar fields or other exotic matter (see Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems). The Kerr solution, the no-hair theorem and the laws of black hole thermodynamics showed that the physical properties of black holes were simple and comprehensible, making them respectable subjects for research. The primary formation process for black holes is expected to be the gravitational collapse of heavy objects such as stars, but there are also more exotic processes that can lead to the production of black holes.

ගුරුත්වාක්ෂණ හැකිළීම

ගුරුත්වාකර්ෂණ හැකිලීම සිදුවන්නේ යම් වස්තුවක අංශු අතර ඇතිවන ගුරුත්වාකර්ණයට ඹරොත්තු දීමට තරම් එහි අභ්‍යන්තර පීඩනය ‍ප්‍රමාණවත් නොවීමය. තාරකාවකට මෙය සිදුවන්නේ න්‍යෂ්ටික-සංස්ලේෂණය මගින් එහි උෂ්ණත්වය පවත්වා ගැනීමට තරම් එහි ඉන්ධන ප්‍රමාණවත් ‍නොවීම හෝ පිටතින් අමතර පදාර්ථයක් එක්වී එහි ස්කන්ධය වැඩි වීම නිසාය. මෙවන් අවස්ථාවකදී තාරකාවේ ගුරුත්වය මගින් තමාවම හකුලවාගැනීම වැලැක්වීමට එහි උෂ්ණත්වය අසමත් වෙයි.

The collapse may be stopped by the degeneracy pressure of the star's constituents, condensing the matter in an exotic denser state. The result is one of the various types of compact star. Which type of compact star is formed depends on the mass of the remnant — the matter left over after changes triggered by the collapse (such as supernova or pulsations leading to a planetary nebula) have blown away the outer layers. Note that this can be substantially less than the original star — remnants exceeding 5 solar masses are produced by stars which were over 20 solar masses before the collapse.

If the mass of the remnant exceeds about 3–4 solar masses (the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit)—either because the original star was very heavy or because the remnant collected additional mass through accretion of matter—even the degeneracy pressure of neutrons is insufficient to stop the collapse. After this, no known mechanism (except possibly quark degeneracy pressure, see quark star) is powerful enough to stop the collapse and the object will inevitably collapse to a black hole.

This gravitational collapse of heavy stars is assumed to be responsible for the formation of stellar mass black holes. Star formation in the young universe may have resulted in very heavy stars, which upon their collapse would have produced black holes of up to 10³ solar masses. These heavy black holes could be the seeds of the supermassive black holes found in the centers of most galaxies.

While most of the energy released during gravitational collapse is emitted very quickly, an outside observer does not actually see the end of this process. Even though the collapse takes a finite amount of time from the reference frame of infalling matter, a distant observer sees the infalling material slow and halt just above the event horizon, due to gravitational time dilation. Light from the collapsing material takes longer and longer to reach the observer, with the light emitted just before the event horizon forms delayed an infinite amount of time. Thus the external observer never sees the formation of the event horizon; instead, the collapsing material seems to become dimmer and increasingly red-shifted, eventually fading away.

මහා පිපිරුමේ ප්‍රථමාරම්භ කළු කුහර

Gravitational collapse requires great densities. In the current epoch of the universe these high densities are only found in stars, but in the early universe shortly after the big bang densities were much greater, possibly allowing for the creation of black holes. The high density alone is not enough to allow the formation of black holes since a uniform mass distribution will not allow the mass to bunch up. In order for primordial black holes to form in such a dense medium, there must be initial density perturbations which can then grow under their own gravity. Different models for the early universe vary widely in their predictions of the size of these perturbations. Various models predict the creation of black holes, ranging from a Planck mass to hundreds of thousands of solar masses. Primordial black holes could thus account for the creation of any type of black hole.

අධි ශක්ති ඝට්ටනය

A simulated event in the CMS detector, a collision in which a micro black hole may be created.

Gravitational collapse is not the only process that could create black holes. In principle, black holes could also be created in high-energy collisions that create sufficient density. However, to date, no such events have ever been detected either directly or indirectly as a deficiency of the mass balance in particle accelerator experiments. This suggests that there must be a lower limit for the mass of black holes. Theoretically, this boundary is expected to lie around the Planck mass (m_P = √ħc/G ≈ 1.2×10¹⁹ GeV/c² ≈ 2.2×10⁻⁸ kg), where quantum effects are expected to make the theory of general relativity break down completely. This would put the creation of black holes firmly out of reach of any high energy process occurring on or near the Earth. Certain developments in quantum gravity however suggest that the Planck mass could be much lower: some braneworld scenarios for example put it much lower, maybe even as low as 1 TeV/c² This would make it possible for micro black holes to be created in the high energy collisions occurring when cosmic rays hit the Earth's atmosphere, or possibly in the new Large Hadron Collider at CERN. These theories are however very speculative, and the creation of black holes in these processes is deemed unlikely by many specialists. Even if such micro black holes should be formed in these collisions, it is expected that they would evaporate in about 10⁻²⁵ seconds, posing no threat to Earth

වර්ධනය

කළු කුහරයක් ඇතිවීමෙන් පසු එය පිටතින් පදාරථ උරා ගනිමින් වර්ධනය වීමට පටන් ගනී. ඕනෑම කළු කුහරයක් දිගින් දිගටම අවට ඇති වාතය සහ අභ්‍යවකාශ දූවිලි මෙන්ම සර්වව්‍යාප්ත විශ්ව පසුබිම් විකිරණයද උරා ගනී. Supermassive කළු කුහර වරධනය වීමට ප්‍රාථමික දායක්ත්වය ලැබී ඇත්තේ මෙම කියාවලිය මගිනි. ගෝලාකාර තරු පොකුරු වල මධ‍්‍යම ප්‍රමාණයේ කළු කුහර සෑදී ඇත්තේද මෙමගින් බවට යෝජනා වී ඇත.

කළු කුහරයකට තාරකාවක් මෙන්ම තවත් කළු කුහරයක් සමග බද්ධ විමේ හැකියාවක් ඇත. කුඩා වස්තු කීපයක එකතුවකින් සෑදී ඇති supermassive කළු කුහරවල ප්‍රථම අවදියේදී ඒවා වර්ධනය වීමට මෙවැනි දෑ වැගදත් වී ඇති බවට විශ්වාස ‍කෙරෙයි. සමහරක් මධ‍්‍යම ප්‍රමාණයේ කළු කුහර ආරම්භය වීම සඳහා දායක වූ බවටද මෙම ක්‍රියාවලිය යෝජනා වී ඇත.

වාෂ්පවීම

මූලික ලිපිය: Hawking radiation

In 1974, Stephen Hawking showed that black holes are not entirely black but emit small amounts of thermal radiation. He got this result by applying quantum field theory in a static black hole background. The result of his calculations is that a black hole should emit particles in a perfect black body spectrum. This effect has become known as Hawking radiation. Since Hawking's result, many others have verified the effect through various methods. If his theory of black hole radiation is correct, then black holes are expected to emit a thermal spectrum of radiation, and thereby lose mass, because according to the theory of relativity mass is just highly condensed energy (E = mc²). Black holes will shrink and evaporate over time. The temperature of this spectrum (Hawking temperature) is proportional to the surface gravity of the black hole, which for a Schwarzschild black hole is inversely proportional to the mass. Large black holes, therefore, emit less radiation than small black holes.

A stellar black hole of one solar mass has a Hawking temperature of about 100 nanokelvins. This is far less than the 2.7 K temperature of the cosmic microwave background. Stellar mass (and larger) black holes receive more mass from the cosmic microwave background than they emit through Hawking radiation and will thus grow instead of shrink. To have a Hawking temperature larger than 2.7 K (and be able to evaporate), a black hole needs to be lighter than the Moon (and therefore a diameter of less than a tenth of a millimeter).

On the other hand, if a black hole is very small the radiation effects are expected to become very strong. Even a black hole that is heavy compared to a human would evaporate in an instant. A black hole the weight of a car (~10⁻²⁴ m) would only take a nanosecond to evaporate, during which time it would briefly have a luminosity more than 200 times that of the sun. Lighter black holes are expected to evaporate even faster, for example a black hole of mass 1 TeV/c² would take less than 10⁻⁸⁸ seconds to evaporate completely. Of course, for such a small black hole quantum gravitation effects are expected to play an important role and could even – although current developments in quantum gravity do not indicate so – hypothetically make such a small black hole stable.

නිරීක්ෂණය කල සාක්ෂි

By their very nature, black holes do not directly emit any signals other than the hypothetical Hawking radiation; since the Hawking radiation for an astrophysical black hole is predicted to be very weak, this makes it impossible to directly detect astrophysical black holes from the Earth. A possible exception to the Hawking radiation being weak is the last stage of the evaporation of light (primordial) black holes; searches for such flashes in the past has proven unsuccessful and provides stringent limits on the possibility of existence of light primordial black holes. NASA's Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope launched in 2008 will continue the search for these flashes.

Astrophysicists searching for black holes thus have to rely on indirect observations. A black hole's existence can sometimes be inferred by observing its gravitational interactions with its surroundings.

පදාර්ථ එකතුවීම

See also: Accretion disc

Formation of extragalactic jets from a black hole's accretion disk

Due to conservation of angular momentum, gas falling into the gravitational well created by a massive object will typically form a disc-like structure around the object. Friction within the disc causes angular momentum to be transported outward allowing matter to fall further inward releasing potential energy and increasing the temperature of the gas. In the case of compact objects such as white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes, the gas in the inner regions becomes so hot that it will emit vast amounts of radiation (mainly X-rays), which may be detected by telescopes. This process of accretion is one of the most efficient energy producing process known; up to 40% of the rest mass of the accreted material can be emitted in radiation. (In nuclear fusion only about 0.7% of the rest mass will be emitted as energy.) In many cases, accretion discs are accompanied by relativistic jets emitted along the poles, which carry away much of the energy. The mechanism for the creation of these jets is currently not well understood.

As such many of the universe's more energetic phenomena have been attributed to the accretion of matter on black holes. In particular, active galactic nuclei and quasars are thought to be the accretion discs of supermassive black holes. Similarly, X-ray binaries are thought to be binary star systems in which one of the two stars is a compact object accreting matter from its companion. It has also been suggested that some ultraluminous X-ray sources may be the accretion disks of intermediate-mass black holes.

X-කිරණ තරු යුග්ම

See also: X-ray binary

X-ray binaries are binary star systems that are luminous in the X-ray part of the spectrum. These X-ray emissions are generally thought to be caused by one of the component stars being a compact object accreting matter from the other (regular) star. The presence of an ordinary star in such a system provides a unique opportunity for studying the central object and determining if it might be a black hole.

Artist impression of a binary system with an accretion disk around a compact object being fed by material from the companion star.

If such a system emits signals that can be directly traced back to the compact object, it cannot be a black hole. The absence of such a signal does, however, not exclude the possibility that the compact object is a neutron star. By studying the companion star it is often possible to obtain the orbital parameters of the system and obtain an estimate for the mass of the compact object. If this is much larger than the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit (that is, the maximum mass a neutron star can have before collapsing) then the object cannot be a neutron star and is generally expected to be a black hole.

The first strong candidate for a black hole, Cygnus X-1, was discovered in this way by Charles Thomas Bolton and Webster and Murdin in 1972. Some doubt, however, remained due to the uncertainties resultant from the companion star being much heavier than the candidate black hole. Currently, better candidates for black holes are found in a class of X-ray binaries called soft X-ray transients. In this class of system the companion star is relatively low mass allowing for more accurate estimates in the black hole mass. Moreover, these systems are only active in X-ray for several months once every 10–50 years. During the period of low X-ray emission (called quiescence), the accretion disc is extremely faint allowing for detailed observation of the companion star during this period. One of the best such candidates is V404 Cyg.

Quiescence and advection-dominated accretion flow

The faintness of the accretion disc during quiescence is thought to be caused by the flow entering a mode called an advection-dominated accretion flow (ADAF). In this mode, almost all the energy generated by friction in the disc is swept along with the flow instead of radiated away. If this model is correct, then it forms strong qualitative evidence for the presence of an event horizon. Because, if the object at the center of the disc had a solid surface, it would emit large amounts of radiation as the highly energetic gas hits the surface, an effect that is observed for neutron stars in a similar state.

Quasi-periodic oscillations

See also: Quasi-periodic oscillations

The X-ray emissions from accretion disks sometimes exhibit a flickering around certain frequencies. These signals are called quasi-periodic oscillations and are thought to be caused by material moving along the inner edge of the accretion disk (the innermost stable circular orbit). As such their frequency is linked to the mass of the compact object. They can thus be used as an alternative way to determine the mass of potential black holes.

ගැමා කිරණ පිපිරුම්

Intense but one-time gamma ray bursts (GRBs) may signal the birth of "new" black holes, because astrophysicists think that GRBs are caused either by the gravitational collapse of giant stars or by collisions between neutron stars, and both types of event involve sufficient mass and pressure to produce black holes. It appears that a collision between a neutron star and a black hole can also cause a GRB, so a GRB is not proof that a "new" black hole has been formed. All known GRBs come from outside our own galaxy, and most come from billions of light years away so the black holes associated with them are billions of years old.

චක්‍රාවාට කේන්ද්‍ර

See also: Active galactic nucleus

The jet originating from the center of M87 in this image comes from an active galactic nucleus that may contain a supermassive black hole. Credit: Hubble Space Telescope/NASA/ESA.

It is now widely accepted that the center of every or at least nearly every galaxy contains a supermassive black hole. The close observational correlation between the mass of this hole and the velocity dispersion of the host galaxy's bulge, known as the M-sigma relation, strongly suggests a connection between the formation of the black hole and the galaxy itself.

For decades, astronomers have used the term "active galaxy" to describe galaxies with unusual characteristics, such as unusual spectral line emission and very strong radio emission. However, theoretical and observational studies have shown that the active galactic nuclei (AGN) in these galaxies may contain supermassive black holes. The models of these AGN consist of a central black hole that may be millions or billions of times more massive than the Sun; a disk of gas and dust called an accretion disk; and two jets that are perpendicular to the accretion disk.

Although supermassive black holes are expected to be found in most AGN, only some galaxies' nuclei have been more carefully studied in attempts to both identify and measure the actual masses of the central supermassive black hole candidates. Some of the most notable galaxies with supermassive black hole candidates include the Andromeda Galaxy, M32, M87, NGC 3115, NGC 3377, NGC 4258, and the Sombrero Galaxy.

Currently, the best evidence for a supermassive black hole comes from studying the proper motion of stars near the center of our own Milky Way. Since 1995 astronomers have tracked the motion of 90 stars in a region called Sagittarius A*. By fitting their motion to Keplerian orbits they were able to infer in 1998 that 2.6 million solar masses must be contained in a volume with a radius of 0.02 lightyears. Since then one of the stars—called S2—has completed a full orbit. From the orbital data they were able to place better constraints on the mass and size of the object causing the orbital motion of stars in the Sagittarius A* region, finding that there is a spherical mass of 4.3 million solar masses contained within a radius of less than 0.002 lightyears. While this is more than 3000 times the Schwarzschild radius corresponding to that mass, it is at least consistent with the central object being a supermassive black hole, and no "realistic cluster [of stars] is physically tenable."

ගුරුත්ව කාච

වැඩිදුර තොරතුරු: [[:Gravitational lens]]

The deformation of spacetime around a massive object causes light rays to be deflected much like light passing through an optic lens. This phenomenon is known as gravitational lensing. Observations have been made of weak gravitational lensing, in which photons are deflected by only a few arcseconds. However, it has never been directly observed for a black hole. One possibility for observing gravitational lensing by a black hole would be to observe stars in orbit around the black hole. There are several candidates for such an observation in orbit around Sagittarius A*.

විකල්ප

The evidence for stellar black holes strongly relies on the existence of an upper limit for the mass of a neutron star. The size of this limit heavily depends on the assumptions made about the properties of dense matter. New exotic phases of matter could push up this bound. A phase of free quarks at high density might allow the existence of dense quark stars, and some supersymmetric models predict the existence of Q stars. Some extensions of the standard model posit the existence of preons as fundamental building blocks of quarks and leptons which could hypothetically form preon stars. These hypothetical models could potentially explain a number of observations of stellar black hole candidates. However, it can be shown from general arguments in general relativity that any such object will have a maximum mass.

Since the average density of a black hole inside its Schwarzschild radius is inversely proportional to the square of its mass, supermassive black holes are much less dense than stellar black holes (the average density of a large supermassive black hole is comparable to that of water). Consequently, the physics of matter forming a supermassive black hole is much better understood and the possible alternative explanations for supermassive black hole observations are much more mundane. For example, a supermassive black hole could be modelled by a large cluster of very dark objects. However, typically such alternatives are not stable enough to explain the supermassive black hole candidates.

The evidence for stellar and supermassive black holes implies that in order for black holes not to form, general relativity must fail as a theory of gravity, perhaps due to the onset of quantum mechanical corrections. A much anticipated feature of a theory of quantum gravity is that it will not feature singularities or event horizons (and thus no black holes). In recent years, much attention has been drawn by the fuzzball model in string theory. Based on calculations in specific situations in string theory, the proposal suggest that generically the individual states of a black hole solution do not have an event horizon or singularity (and can thus not really be considered to be a black hole), but that for a distant observer the statistical average of such states does appear just like an ordinary black hole in general relativity.

විවෘත විමසීම්

එන්ට්‍රෝපිය සහ thermodynamics

වැඩිදුර තොරතුරු: [[:Black hole thermodynamics]]

In 1971, Stephen Hawking showed under general conditions that the total area of the event horizons of any collection of classical black holes can never decrease, even if they collide and merge. This result, now known as the second law of black hole mechanics, is remarkably similar to the second law of thermodynamics, which states that the total entropy of a system can never decrease. As with classical objects at absolute zero temperature, it was assumed that black holes had zero entropy. If this were the case, the second law of thermodynamics would be violated by entropy-laden matter entering the black hole, resulting in a decrease of the total entropy of the universe. Therefore, Jacob Bekenstein proposed that a black hole should have an entropy, and that it should be proportional to its horizon area.

The link with the laws of thermodynamics was further strengthened by Hawking's discovery that quantum field theory predicts that a black hole radiates blackbody radiation at a constant temperature. This seemingly causes a violation of the second law of black hole mechanics, since the radiation will carry away energy from the black hole causing it to shrink. The radiation, however also carries away entropy, and it can be proven under general assumptions that the sum of the entropy of the matter surrounding the black hole and one quarter of the area of the horizon as measured in Planck units is in fact always increasing. This allows the formulation of the first law of black hole mechanics as an analogue of the first law of thermodynamics, with the mass acting as energy, the surface gravity as temperature and the area as entropy.

One puzzling feature is that the entropy of a black hole scales with its area rather than with its volume, since entropy is normally an extensive quantity that scales linearly with the volume of the system. This odd property led 't Hooft and Susskind to propose the holographic principle, which suggests that anything that happens in volume of spacetime can be described by data on the boundary of that volume.

Although general relativity can be used to perform a semi-classical calculation of black hole entropy, this situation is theoretically unsatisfying. In statistical mechanics, entropy is understood as counting the number of microscopic configurations of a system which have the same macroscopic qualities (such as mass, charge, pressure, etc.). Without a satisfactory theory of quantum gravity, one cannot perform such a computation for black holes. Some progress has been made in various approaches to quantum gravity. In 1995, Strominger and Vafa showed that counting the microstates of a specific supersymmetric black hole in string theory reproduced the Bekenstein–Hawking entropy. Since then, similar results have been reported for different black holes both in string theory and in other approaches to quantum gravity like loop quantum gravity.

කළු කුහර ඒකීය භාවය

මූලික ලිපිය: Black hole information paradox

භෞතික විද්‍යාව විෂයයෙහි නොවිසඳුනු ගැටළු

කළු කුහරයක් තුලදී භෞතික තොරතුරු (physical information) නැතිවෙනවාද?

An open question in fundamental physics is the so-called information loss paradox, or black hole unitarity paradox. Classically, the laws of physics are the same run forward or in reverse (T-symmetry). Liouville's theorem dictates conservation of phase space volume, which can be thought of as "conservation of information", so there is some problem even in classical physics. In quantum mechanics, this corresponds to a vital property called unitarity, which has to do with the conservation of probability (it can also be thought of as a conservation of quantum phase space volume as expressed by the density matrix).

මේවාත් බලන්න

Black holes in fiction Black string Kugelblitz (astrophysics) List of black holes Susskind-Hawking battle

Star ද්වාරය Timeline of black hole physics White hole Wormhole

ආශ්‍රිත ග්‍රන්ථ

Popular reading

• Ferguson, Kitty (1991). Black Holes in Space-Time. Watts Franklin. ISBN 0-531-12524-6. .
• Hawking, Stephen (1988). A Brief History of Time. Bantam Books, Inc. ISBN 0-553-38016-8. .
• Hawking, Stephen; Penrose, Roger (1996). The Nature of Space and Time. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-03791-2. http://books.google.com/?id=LstaQTXP65cC. .
• Melia, Fulvio (2003). The Black Hole at the Center of Our Galaxy. Princeton U Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09505-9. .
• Melia, Fulvio (2003). The Edge of Infinity. Supermassive Black Holes in the Universe. Cambridge U Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81405-8. .
• Pickover, Clifford (1998). Black Holes: A Traveler's Guide. Wiley, John & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-19704-1. .
• Stern, B. (2008). Blackhole. , poem.
• Thorne, Kip S. (1994). Black Holes and Time Warps. Norton, W. W. & Company, Inc. ISBN 0-393-31276-3. .
• Wheeler, J. Craig (2007). Cosmic Catastrophes (2nd සංස්.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85714-7. 

University textbooks and monographs

• Carroll, Sean M. (2004). Spacetime and Geometry. Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-8053-8732-3. , the lecture notes on which the book was based are available for free from Sean Carroll's website.
• Carter, B. (1973). "Black hole equilibrium states". මෙම කෘතිය තුල: DeWitt, B.S.; DeWitt, C.. Black Holes. .
• Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (1999). Mathematical Theory of Black Holes. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850370-9. .
• Frolov, V.P.; Novikov, I.D. (1998). Black hole physics. .
• Hawking, S.W.; Ellis, G.F.R. (1973). Large Scale Structure of space time. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521099064. http://books.google.com/?id=QagG_KI7Ll8C. .
• Melia, Fulvio (2007). The Galactic Supermassive Black Hole. Princeton U Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13129-0. .
• Taylor, Edwin F.; Wheeler, John Archibald (2000). Exploring Black Holes. Addison Wesley Longman. ISBN 0-201-38423-X. .
• Thorne, Kip S.; Misner, Charles; Wheeler, John (1973). Gravitation. W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-0344-0. .
• Wald, Robert M. (1992). Space, Time, and Gravity: The Theory of the Big Bang and Black Holes. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-87029-4. .

Review papers

• Detweiler, S. (1981). "Resource letter BH-1: Black holes". American Journal of Physics 49 (5, pp): 394–400. doi:10.1119/1.12686. 
• doi:10.1119/1.3056569
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• Hughes, Scott A. (2005). "Trust but verify: The case for astrophysical black holes". arΧiv:hep-ph/0511217v2 [hep-ph].  Lecture notes from 2005 SLAC Summer Institute.

අඩවියෙන් බැහැර පිටු

• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Singularities and Black Holes" by Erik Curiel and Peter Bokulich.
• "Black hole" on Scholarpedia.
• Black Holes: Gravity's Relentless Pull - Interactive multimedia Web site about the physics and astronomy of black holes from the Space Telescope Science Institute
• FAQ on black holes
• "Schwarzschild Geometry" on Andrew Hamilton’s website
• UT Brownsville Group Simulates Spinning Black-Hole Binaries
• Advanced Mathematics of Black Hole Evaporation

Videos

• 16-year long study tracks stars orbiting Milky Way black hole
• Yale University Video Lecture: Introduction to Black Holes at Google Video.
• Movie of Black Hole Candidate from Max Planck Institute

News

• "Black Hole confirmed in Milky Way." Retrieved December 10, 2008
• Black Hole Research News